Linking Parts Of A Sentence 
Linking Parts Of A Sentence
1. Words meaning 'and' or 'also' 

and conjunction used when joining two words or clauses in one sentence, or in one part
of a sentence: 
 She studied physics and biology at university.
 The information was checked and then rechecked.
 His stay in London was both happy and successful.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Don't use and at the beginning of a sentence

also adverb  used  when  adding  another fact about someone or something,  or when 
mentioning another person or thing:
 Smoking causes lung cancer. It has also been linked to heart disease. 
 Although most of her books are for adults, she also writes for children.
 The country's mineral resources consist not only of diamonds	but also of oil. (=used
when you want to emphasize that something else is also important)

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Don't  write 'also  can'. For example, don't write 'You also  can go swimming, walking or
cycling.' when you mean: You can also go swimming, walking or cycling.
Don't use also with two negative statements. Use not ... either. For example, don't write 
'She does not  drink. She also  does  not  smoke.'  when you mean: She does  not drink.
She does not smoke either.

too / as well	adverb  used when you are  adding another fact about  someone or 
something:
 Wind energy is cheap. It is good for the environment too.
 The  long hours at  work began to affect his health. They affected his personal life  as 
well.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Too and as well  are normally used at the end of the sentence. The exception to this is 
the phrase as well as, which can be used earlier in the sentence, for example: As well 
as being an artist and designer, Morris was also a political thinker.
 There are sports facilities available for girls as well as boys. 

in addition used when adding another piece of information to what you have just said. 
In addition is often used when saying that something makes an amount even larger:
 A fifth of the world's  population  lives on  less than $1 a day.	In addition, over 100
million children are living on the streets.
 Over 600 people will lose  their jobs,	in addition to  the 400 people who left the
company last year.
 In addition to being a major oil producer, Nigeria is home to over 110 million people.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
In addition, furthermore, and moreover are very commonly used in essays.

furthermore / moreover adverb used at the beginning of a sentence when adding
an  important  fact that  is connected with what  you  have just  said.	Furthermore  and
moreover  are formal words, used especially when  trying to persuade people to  agree
with what you are saying:
 The drug  has strong side effects.	Furthermore, it  can be addictive.  (=the writer is 
adding another fact to persuade the reader that the drug is dangerous)
 There is no evidence to link him with the murder. Moreover, the murder weapon has 
still not been found. (=the writer is trying to persuade us that the police do not have very 
much information)
 Ireland's economy has grown far faster than those of its neighbors. Moreover, inflation
has stayed low.

not to mention used when adding something at the end of a sentence, which adds to
the main idea of what you have just said: 
 As he got older, his films became very strange, not to mention violent.
 Big  4-wheel-drive vehicles cause  so much  environmental damage through pollution,
not to mention the danger they pose to pedestrians and cyclists.



2. Words meaning 'because' 

because conjunction used when giving the reason for something:

 People are leaving the countryside because they cannot find work there.
 The streets were flooded because of all the rain.
 Because of the use of chemical fertilizers, there are fewer fish in our rivers.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
In written English, you don't usually use  because at the beginning of a sentence when
you are referring back to the previous sentence. It is used to link two parts of the same
sentence.  For example, instead of writing  "Many firms are  building  factories there.
Because wages are much lower." it is  much better to write: Many firms are  building 
factories there, because wages are much lower.

due to / owing to preposition used to give the reason why something has happened:

 The delay was due to a problem with the ship's engines.
 Local authorities have been slow to build recycling facilities, mainly owing to lack of
money.
 The men did most of the work in the fields. This was partly due to the fact that	the
men were stronger.
 Due to the danger of fire, people are advised not to drop cigarettes on the ground. 

through preposition because of something. Through is used especially when saying
why someone succeeded or failed to do something: 
 She succeeded through her own efforts.
 They managed to win the game, partly through luck and partly through skill.
 Thousands of working days are lost each year through illness. 

thanks to  used when  explaining that something  good has happened because of
someone's efforts, or because something exists:
 Today, thanks to the Internet, people can do all their shopping from home.
 Thanks to advances in modern medicine, the disease can now be cured. 
 Reinhardt survived the war, mainly thanks to the help of a German officer who loved
his music.

since (also as British English) conjunction used when giving the reason why someone
decides to do something or decides that something is true:
 As it was a hot day, they decided to leave all the windows open. 
 Since it is difficult to predict how the climate will change, it is not possible to say which 
countries will suffer the most.

in view of a formal phrase used when introducing the reason for someone's decision,
or when saying that something is an important thing to consider:
 The court decided that in view of his age, he should be released.
 In view of all the research on the subject, it seems strange that so many people still
smoke cigarettes. 

 Most British people do not want to change from the pound to the Euro. This may seem
surprising in view of the fact that they often use Euros on their holidays. 

out of preposition because of a particular feeling or quality:

 He started reading the book out of curiosity.
 She asked the question out of politeness.
 Out of desperation, he tried to borrow money from his neighbour.



3. Words meaning 'but' or 'although' 

but conjunction  used when linking two  words or phrases that seem opposite or very
different in meaning:
 The plant's leaves are big, but its flowers are quite small.
 Her books are fascinating but often rather disturbing.
 Many French dishes are basically simple, but they can take a long time to prepare.
 Most  of  us value  human  life,	but  some  people think of animals as being equally 
important.

although	conjunction  used when contrasting one clause with  another in the same
sentence: 
 Although you are in the middle of the city, you feel as if you are in the countryside. 
 The  windmill is still in good  working order, although  it has not  been  used  since  the
1950s.
	Although  lack of  sleep causes some  problems, it has a relatively small effect on
performance at work.

however / nevertheless conjunction used when saying something that seems very
different or surprising  after your previous statement.	However  and	nevertheless  are 
usually used when referring back to the previous sentence: 
 Their economy was incredibly successful in the 1980s. Since then, however, there has 
been a big rise in unemployment.
 The town is a long way from the nearest big city. However, there is a good bus service. 
 A series of  studies 20 years ago suggested  that there was a link between  watching
violent films	and	violent  behaviour. 	Nevertheless,	the	results  remain	highly 
controversial.
 It was very hard digging in the dry ground, but the work was satisfying nevertheless.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
However  is usually used in the middle of a sentence,  separated from the  rest of the 
sentence by commas::	Jack and his family managed to  escape  before  the soldiers
arrived. Other families in the village, however, were less lucky.

Or it comes  at the beginning of  a sentence:	He began his  academic career  as  a 
mathematician. However, his main achievements were in the field of nuclear physics.  
Nevertheless is usually used at the beginning of a sentence, or at the end.

whereas / while	conjunction  used  when  making  comparisons and  saying  that 
something is true  of  one  person, thing,  or situation, but it is different for another. 
Whereas  and  while  are  used when  contrasting  one clause with another in the  same
sentence: 
 Taxes make up 62% of the price of a litre of petrol in France, whereas in Britain, the
tax is 75%.
 Some people  visit their doctor  once every few  weeks,	while  others may  not visit a
doctor for several years.
 Whereas in most of the world they drive on the right, in the UK and Japan they drive on 
the left.

by  contrast  used when making  comparisons  and saying  that a person,  thing, or
situation  is very different from the one  you have just mentioned.	By  contrast  is used 
when referring back to the previous sentence:
 The surface temperature on Venus is higher than the boiling point of water. Mars, by 
contrast, is very cold
 A report  by the FBI  shows that 26%  of female murder victims in 1995  were  killed by
their husbands  or boyfriends. By contrast, only  3% of male victims were  killed by their
wives or girlfriends.

yet conjunction used when introducing a fact that seems surprising after what you have 
just said:
 Last summer there was a drought, yet some people were still watering their gardens
every day.
 We  all know  that fibre is important for good health.  And yet  all the natural fibre  is
removed from many foods such as white bread and sugar.

even so used when saying that something is true, in spite of a fact that you have just
mentioned:
 Morris's furniture is distinctly English. Even so, the sale drew a lot of American interest.
 The  economy continues to  do  well, but  even  so, many analysts are  predicting  a 
slowdown in the near future. 

in spite of / despite preposition even though something happens or is true: 

 This was a dinosaur that weighed only 10 tons, in spite of being some 28 metres long.
 In spite of everything that has happened, life is still getting better for many Russians.

	Despite  his lack of  formal education, he  became  one  of  the world's leading
mathematicians. 
 Many people are worried that cellphones may be dangerous to health, despite the fact 
that most of the research suggests that there is little risk.



4. Words meaning 'if' 

if conjunction used when talking about the possibility that something might happen or be 
true:
 If  the scientists' predictions are  correct,  average global temperatures could rise by 6
degrees.
 He faced a long prison sentence if the court found him guilty. 
 The  report said  that the accident could have been avoided	if  the correct safety
procedures had been followed. 
 Most  countries are prepared to  use force,	if necessary, to  protect their national
interests.
 The patient should be kept in the same position, if possible.
 The injury needed to be treated immediately. If not, infection could set in. 
 The British authorities could not help, even if they wanted to. 

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
When using	if  to  talk about the future, you normally use the simple present tense.
For example, don't say 'If  it  will rain, the game will  be  canceled', when you mean:	If it 
rains, the game will be canceled.

unless	conjunction  if something  does not happen, or if  someone does not do
something:
	Unless  something is done quickly, developing countries  will fall  even further  behind 
Western countries.
 The star is really difficult to see unless the sky is dark and very clear.
 The doctors said they could not treat the boy unless and until his parents gave their 
permission.

whether or not  used when saying that it does not  matter if  something happens or
not, or if something is true or not:
 Research showed that six out of 10 patients got better on their own,  whether or not
they received treatment.
 Whether or not you agree with what she is saying, her articles are always interesting
and thought-provoking.

otherwise adverb used when saying that there  will be a  bad result if someone does
not do something, or if something does not happen: 

 The committee needs to act quickly, otherwise there could be a serious problem.
 The local people are certainly glad that the tourists are there. Otherwise there would
be no money and no jobs.

in case in order to deal with something that might happen:

 Doctors have to take out insurance to protect themselves in case they are sued.
 It is best to keep a medical kit ready in case of emergency.
 She did not think it would rain, but she took her umbrella just in case.

assuming that if what you think will happen is true:

	Assuming that  the present trend  continues, the  world population  is likely to rise to
over 8 billion. 
 This sort of floor covering can be laid directly onto concrete floors, assuming that they 
are level.

as long as / provided that conjunction only if something else happens or is true: 

 Vegetarian diets are perfectly healthy, provided that you take care to get enough iron, 
calcium and B vitamins.
	As  long as	the economy continues to grow,  people  will continue  to support the 
government.

on condition that  used when  you agree to  do  something only if  someone first
agrees to do something else:
 He was offered the job on condition that he went on a month-long training course. 
 The painting was sold on condition that it never left France. 

in the event of / that if something happens, especially a serious situation such as 
an accident, a fire, or a war:
 Guidelines have been isued to local authorities on what to do in the event of a nuclear 
accident.
	In the event of  an earthquake, people  are advised to take  cover under desks or 
doorways.
	In the event that  the party lost  the  election,  his future as party leader would  be  in 
doubt.



5. Words meaning 'in order to' 

in order to for the purpose of doing something: 

 Some people steal in order to buy drugs.
 In order to prove his theory, he carried out a series of experiments.


 Plants need light in order to survive. 
 The speech was changed in order not to offend anyone.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
in order to is used especially in formal contexts. In all other contexts people often just
write	to, for example:  The  organization was set up  originally	to  protect  the  rights of
children.
 To make sure that the job was done properly, Mr Lobov appointed three new deputy 
ministers.

so (that) conjunction  used  when  saying  why someone  does something or what  the 
result of something is:
 Workers need to learn new skills so that they can keep up with the latest advances in 
technology.
 Doctors use miniature cameras so that they can see inside the patients' stomachs.
 The windows are designed so that you can see out, but other people cannot see in. 

for preposition for a particular reason or purpose:

 She went into hospital for a checkup.
 Some  people give up eating meat for  health  reasons, while others give up because 
they are concerned about animal welfare.
 The land is used for agricultural purposes.

with the aim of doing something in order to try and achieve something:

 The dam was built with the aim of providing drinking water to thousands of people. 
 Talks were held in Paris with the aim of helping the two sides reach an agreement.

with a view to doing something because you are planning to do something later 
in the future, and this will help you to do it:
 They  wanted to  establish  closer links with Germany,	with a view to  becoming 
members of the European Union.
 Rice and potatoes were genetically modified, with a view to commercial planting.



6. Words meaning 'or' 

or conjunction used between two possibilities or choices, or before the last one in a list
of possibilities or choices: 
 It is important not to get the chemicals on your hands or your clothes.
 Payment can be made by cash, cheque or credit card.
 There is very little difference between the two species of bird, either in size or colour.


alternatively adverb  used  when giving another choice apart from the one  you have 
already mentioned:
 You  can go  up into the mountains.  Alternatively, you  can  stroll around  one of
Switzerland's delightful cities where the old mixes with the new.
 For a master's degree, 12 months' full-time study is normally required, or alternatively
24 months of part-time study.

on the one hand ...  on the other (hand)  used when giving  two very different
ideas or opinions about something, especially when they need to be balanced against
each other:
	On the one hand, the internet gives students access to information on  every 
imaginable  topic.	On the other, there  is a lot  of  material on the  internet that  is very 
unsuitable for students. 
 On the one hand, it is important not to limit individual freedom too much, but on the 
other hand, people have the right to be able to live their lives in peace.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Don't say 'on one hand'. Say on the one hand.



7. Words meaning 'therefore' 

therefore	adverb  used when  saying that something happens or someone  does 
something as a result of something else: 
 She already had a lot of experience and therefore seemed the best candidate for the
job.
 Many old people  have some  form  of  disability or health problem. It is  not surprising,
therefore, that they are the biggest users of the health care system.
 The Japanese writing system has thousands of characters. Therefore it takes a long 
time to learn.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Therefore is more formal than so.
You can use therefore in the middle of a sentence, or at the beginning of a sentence. 
You use so in the middle of a sentence, usually after a comma.

so conjunction used when saying that something happens or someone does something
as a result of something else: 
 They had not eaten all day, so they were very hungry.
 Questions have been raised over the safety  of  the toys,	and so  they are  being
withdrawn from the market.


thus adverb a formal word, meaning as a result of what you have just mentioned:

 The dinosaurs all died out within a short period of time. Thus it seems likely that there 
must have been some kind of catastrophic event.
 The program is very simple and thus easy to run. 

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Thus is more formal than therefore, and is used especially in formal writing.

hence adverb a formal word, meaning for this reason: 

 This material is highly poisonous, hence the importance of careful handling. 
 Their names sound very similar. Hence they are often confused with each other.

as a result	use  this to say that  because  of  a particular situation,  something else 
happens or is true:
 Some people suffer from stress at work and become ill as a result.
 The farmer could not  pump  water onto  his field and, as a  result, he had grown only 
twenty tons of melons compared to eighty before the war.
 Economic growth slowed down as a result of inflation.
 As a result of her injuries, she was forced to abandon her hopes of going to medical 
school.

consequently  / as a consequence	adverb  use  this to  say that because of  a 
particular situation, something else happens or is true:
 The disease attacks the plant, the flower does not open, and consequently no seeds 
are produced.
 More  people  are  using their  cars, and  as a consequence  many rural bus services 
have been severely reduced.
 As a consequence of global warming, our climate is already starting to change.
 Lead remains forever in the atmosphere. Consequently, this year's lead pollution will
add to that of all previous years.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar 
Consequently and as a consequence are more formal than as a result.

for this reason / for these reasons	used when  explaining the  reason for 
something:
 She was not very good at ball games. For this reason she did not care much for sport 
or physical activities.
 If you live in a big city, housing is very expensive and there is so much pollution. For
these and other  reasons, more and  more  people  are choosing  to  move  out to  the
country.

with the result that use this to  say that because of  a particular situation,  another 
situation exists or happens:
 Both laboratories were completely re-equipped last year, with the result that we now
have the most modern facilities in the country.
 Taxes were increased, with the result that people had to work harder if they wanted to
maintain their standard of living. 

this means that used when saying what the result of something is:

 Childcare is very expensive. This means that many women cannot afford to go back 
to work after having children.
 If students arrive late, this can mean that a large part of the lesson time is wasted. 

thereby adverb a formal word, used when saying what the result of something is. You 
use thereby in the middle of a sentence, usually after a comma: 
 The two companies were merged, thereby creating a single company.
 If our homes are properly insulated, we need to use less oil or gas, thereby cutting the
cost of heating them.

accordingly adverb a formal word, meaning as a result of what you have just said: 

 Too much alcohol can be harmful to health. Accordingly, on this diet you are allowed 
only one or two units of alcohol per day.
 He had disobeyed an order from a senior officer, and accordingly he was dismissed
from the army.
